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Exploring Potential Connections Between Parental
Divorce, Deviance and Negative Child Outcomes:
A Literature Review
Haley Robertson
Arkansas Tech University
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EXPLORING POTENTIAL CONNECTIONS BETWEEN PARENTAL DIVORCE,
DEVIANCE AND NEGATIVE CHILD OUTCOMES: A LITERATURE REVIEW
By
HALEY ROBERTSON
Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of
Arkansas Tech University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF LIBERAL ARTS IN COMMUNICATIONS
May 2016
ii
© 2016 Haley Robertson
iii
Abstract
Today, divorce is at an all-time high in the United States. Divorce not only impacts
adults, but it greatly impacts children. The number of children affected by divorce has
increased dramatically since the 1950s. Many studies over the years have linked juvenile
delinquency, deviancy, and antisocial behavior to children who have experienced a
parental divorce. I believe there is a connection between juvenile delinquency and
parental divorce. In this paper, I will explore how existing research has proven that
parental divorce and juvenile delinquency are connected. This article focuses on the
impact of divorce on children through various characteristics such as socioeconomic
status, family structure, social support, mental health, and academic performance. It will
explain how these certain characteristics each impact the role of delinquency.
Keywords: divorce; parental separation; delinquency
iv
Table of Contents
Page
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii
I. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................1
The Hardships of Socioeconomic Disadvantages ....................................................2
Family Dysfunction and the Roles of Parenting ......................................................4
The Impact of Divorce on Mental Health ................................................................5
Academic Performance ............................................................................................7
II. DELINQUENCY ............................................................................................................9
The Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Delinquency ............................................9
Family Dysfunction can Lead to Delinquency ......................................................10
Parental Divorce Impacts Mental Health which Can Lead to Delinquency ..........12
Academic Performance and Deviant Behavior ......................................................12
III. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................14
IV. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................17
1
Literature Review
Marriage and divorce are both common experiences. Marriage is associated with
a variety of positive outcomes, and the dissolution of marriage is associated with negative
outcomes for men, women, and their children (Loveless & Holman, 2006). Divorce was
once viewed as morally wrong, but now it has changed drastically in law as well as in the
attitudes of the general population across the country. Today, divorce is at an all-time
high in the United States (U.S.). High divorce rates in the U.S. over the past 20 years
have resulted in numerous changes in the American family life, with perhaps the most
important consequences bearing on children whose families were disrupted (Demo &
Acock, 1988). About 25% of children in the U.S. live with only one parent (Bernet,
2015). The U.S. Census Bureau (2011) estimated 14.4 million parents lived with 23.4
million children less than 21 years of age while the other parent(s) lived somewhere else.
Divorce not only impacts adults, but it greatly impacts children. The stigma of
divorce may be gone, but the divorce itself still plays a major role in a child’s upbringing
and other societal problems. Sigle-Rushton, Lyngstad, Andersen, and Kravdal (2014)
discuss in their research that children who spend time in a single-parent family following
the dissolution of their parents’ relationship fare worse, on average, than children who
grow up with both biological parents. Many children in divorced families encounter
more negative life changes than positive changes because of their parents’ separation.
Demo and Acock (1988) explained that there are significant changes in family
composition, parent-child interaction, discipline, and socioeconomic circumstances, as
well as the emotional reactions that parents and children have to divorce. Social and
psychological well-being includes aspects of personal adjustment, self-concept,
2
interpersonal relationships, antisocial behavior, and cognitive functioning. Some of the
socioeconomic circumstances that could alter a family’s day-to-day life are restrictions to
activities, changes in residences or schools, and increasing levels of daily stress that the
family experiences. Their research suggests that family disruption alters daily routines
and work schedules, and imposes additional demands on adults and children living in
single-parent families.
Many studies over the years have linked juvenile delinquency, deviancy, and
antisocial behavior to children dealing with the implications of parental divorce (Demo &
Acock, 1988). I believe there is a connection between juvenile delinquency and parental
divorce. In this paper, I will explore how existing research has demonstrated that
parental divorce and negative child outcomes are connected, and based on these
processes, I will suggest intervention points to try and disrupt this pattern. One
intervention which may help this is the process of mediation, in which a neutral third
person helps two parties resolve disputes between them. This tactic has been practiced for
thousands of years and is universal among many societies. This article focuses on the
impact of divorce on children through various characteristics such as socioeconomic
status, family structure, social support, mental health, and academic performance. I will
explain how these certain characteristics each impact the role of delinquency.
The Hardships of Socioeconomic Disadvantages
Many of today’s families face significant financial problems as a result of the
current status of the economy. A family’s socioeconomic position is very important
because it affects the life course development and interrelationships of family members.
Socioeconomic disadvantage has negative consequences for adults and children.
3
Financial hardship often causes psychological distress and disrupted parenting
practices. Conger, Conger, and Martin (2010) confirmed in their research that families
often suffer when faced with economic hardship or low socioeconomic status. For
families who are already poor, divorce will often intensify their economic situation. This
can result in more stressed-out parents who are less available, resulting in higher stress
levels through the family system (Conger et al., 2010).
Strohschein (2005) discusses that the association between socioeconomic status
and child mental health is also well documented. Children with corresponding higher
levels of household income and parental education and in households that are owned
rather than rented have fewer emotional and behavioral problems. The economic hardship
during and following a divorce can make it hard for the family to adjust in ways that
benefit the child (Strohschein, 2005).
Divorce often precipitates a downward slide in standard of living, and may result
in changes in residence, school, and friends (Thomas & Gibbons, 2005). Adolescents are
often no longer able to participate in the sports and organizations they had prior to the
separation due to the changing of residence and schools. In addition, the economic
hardship during and following a divorce can make it difficult for parents to provide
resources such as books, computers, travel, and assistance with college tuition to
facilitate their children’s educational stressors. When children or adolescents are faced
with the challenge of having to change residences or experience restrictions of certain
activities, their level of daily stress increases significantly. This level of daily stress can
intensify the role of parenting which can make it very challenging at times. The impact of
reduced family income on the adjustment of children of divorce may be expressed
4
indirectly through its negative effect on the quality of parenting of the custodial parent
(Simons, Lin, Gordon, Conger, & Lorenz, 1999).
Family Dysfunction and the Roles of Parenting
Family dysfunction can be defined as the absence of mutually supportive,
trusting, and respectful family relationships (Ebling, Pruett, & Pruett, 2009). Treating
family dysfunction as an indicator of parental investment is justified because parents bear
responsibility for providing a positive family environment for their children, a task that
requires parenting and interpersonal skills. As parents proceed along the path to divorce,
the ability and motivation of one or both parents to invest time, effort, and resources into
the lives of their children may become increasingly compromised (Ebling et al., 2009).
Parental separation removes one parent from the home, which can result in
changes in the child’s relationship with both parents. Divorce may impact children’s
internal representation of the family. Ebling et al. (2009) discuss how children with
separated or divorced parents are more likely to exclude family members socially.
Factors such as separation from parents, permanent or temporary changes of residence,
and visitation arrangements disrupt children’s sense of security with custodial and
noncustodial parents. Parental conflict negatively affects children’s attachment to parents
and subsequent feelings of security in relationships. Children and adults experiencing
parental divorce and growing up in a high-conflict family are associated with long-term
decrements in well-being (Ebling et al., 2009). Some research on children suggests that
divorced custodial parents are less communicative and affectionate, more punitive, and
more inconsistent in the use of discipline than married parents (Riggio & Valenzuela,
5
2004). Children exposed to high-conflict parental relationships may acquire the negative
or dysfunctional behavioral strategies used by parents during conflict.
Parental separation may lead to a reduction in social support which is also related
to poorer health (Maier & Lachman, 2000). In addition to the reduction of social time
due to socioeconomic constraints, divorce removes one parent from the home which
limits the amount of parental support the child receives. Some studies have found that
children whose parents divorced had higher levels of interpersonal dependence which had
a detrimental effect on their social interactions (Maier & Lachman, 2000). This type of
loss is associated with interpersonal difficulties which may reduce the amount of support
the child later receives from friends or family. Strohschein (2005) implies in her research
that psychosocial resources such as marital satisfaction, parental depression, and family
dysfunction reflect parents’ interpersonal skills and psychological capabilities in
maintaining family well-being, and each are linked to parental divorce and child mental
health. Although parental separation does not necessarily lead to psychopathology in the
child, it may initiate a chain of negative events which causes its effect to persist over time
(Maier & Lachman, 2000).
The Impact of Divorce on Mental Health
Divorce is likely to be a stressful experience for children. Amato and Keith
(1991) discovered that experiencing a parental divorce before age 16 was associated with
poorer mental health. Parental divorce may cause an initial depressive episode in
children and adolescents, and depression may reoccur in adulthood. Some negative
outcomes associated with parental divorce include negatively impacted psychological
well-being (e.g., depression, low life satisfaction), family well-being (e.g., low marital
6
quality, divorce), socioeconomic well-being, and physical health. Amato and Keith
(1991) conclude in their research that individuals who experienced parental divorce as
children, compared with those parents who were continuously married, have lower
quality of life as adults. Similarly, children of divorced parents have been shown to
exhibit more emotional (e.g., depression and anxiety) problems than children of married
parents (Neher & Short, 1998). These results also suggest that children of divorce may
continue to have poorer adjustment than their peers into adulthood.
Studies have confirmed that children from divorced families, on average,
experienced more behavioral problems and had a lower level of well-being than did
children from continuously intact two-parent families (Nair & Murray, 2005). Loss or
separation from parents in childhood does have a negative impact on health problems and
psychological adjustment in midlife and that the effects are more pronounced for divorce
(Maier & Lachman, 2000). The divorce experience during infancy and early childhood
has more adverse effects on children than it does during the elementary, middle
childhood, and adolescent years (Nair & Murray, 2005). Rapid developmental changes in
the cognitive, emotional, and social domains take place in early childhood. Family
disruptions in this period can have lasting consequences on the child’s well-being and
adjustment in later years.
Children who experience parental divorce handle the situation in different ways.
Some children are able to adjust and deal with the separation, while others struggle to
handle the disruption in the family. Studies have shown mixed results with respect to how
the timing of divorce affects children’s adjustment (Lansford, 2009). Young children
may be less capable of realistically assessing the causes and consequences of divorce,
7
may feel more anxious about abandonment, may be more likely to blame themselves, and
may be less able to take advantage of resources outside the family to cope with the
divorce than do children who are older when the divorce occurs. In addition to potential
mental health consequences, depending on how some children cope with their parents’
divorce, there may be an academic performance decline.
Academic Performance
Family conflict and disruption are associated with inhibited cognitive functioning
such as poor performances on standardized intelligence and academic achievement tests
(Demo & Acock, 1988). Family disruption alters daily routines, work schedules, and
imposes additional demands on adults and children living in single-parent families.
Some adolescents must assume extra domestic and child care responsibilities, and
financial conditions require some to work part-time. These burdens result in more
absences of school, more tardiness, and can cause severe stress in terms of academics.
Likewise, some work schedules are demanding and this can take away the necessary time
available to work on school work.
As a group, adolescents from divorced families display lower levels of academic
and vocational attainment. Adolescents demonstrate lower academic performance and
achievement test scores and are two to three times more likely to drop out of school
(Thomas & Gibbons, 2009). Many studies conclude that young people in single-parent
households are not as academically successful as those living with both biological parents
(Frisco, Muller, & Frank, 2007). Divorce can affect high school students’ academic
performance by increasing academic stratification. Some students simply want to
graduate and would rather not take demanding college preparatory classes. Instead,
8
students will most likely take general classes and not even consider filling out a college
application form. Financial instability, marital quality, negative spousal behavior, and
parental fighting can also influence adolescents’ school performance. Additional
stressors associated with divorce also impede adolescents’ efforts to learn and succeed in
school.
Children also suffer emotional problems which can lead to interference with study
patterns. Children who live with single parents or stepparents during adolescence receive
less encouragement and less help with school work than children who live with both
natural parents. Ineffective or inadequate parental assistance may lead a child to feel
overwhelmed and consequently withdraw themselves from school (Astone &
McLanahan, 1991). In numerous studies, children who grow in single-parent families
have found to be less likely to complete high school or to attend college than children
who grow up with both parents.
Evidence has been obtained across different country contexts and using a variety
of measures of educational success has demonstrated fairly conclusively that children
who grew up with both parents have the best educational outcomes (Sigle-Rushton et al.,
2014). It is likewise well established that some children who spend time in a single-
parent family following the dissolution of their parents’ relationship fare worse than
children who grow up with both biological parents. Children of divorce will often have
difficulty with school, suffer depression, and commit delinquent acts. Although divorce
does not affect all children uniformly, research confirms that divorce negatively
influences academic performance and behavioral adjustment.
9
Delinquency
Juvenile delinquency has been a concern for decades. Delinquency is more
prevalent today than in the past. Delinquency can be defined as a minor crime, especially
those committed by young people. In 2009, juvenile courts in the United States handled
an estimated 1.5 million delinquency cases that involved juveniles charged with criminal
law violations (Parks, 2013).
The Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Delinquency
Socioeconomic status is one of the most documented correlates of juvenile
delinquency. Many studies have shown that youths from low socioeconomic families are
more likely to engage in delinquent behavior than youths from high socioeconomic
families (Rekker et al., 2015). Research shows that, while the child poverty rate in
America is 20%, more than half of American youths spend at least one year in poverty
before age 18. The disadvantages of low socioeconomic status on families are most often
negative. However, although low economic status alone does not encourage delinquent
behavior, poor families tend to have a lower quality of life (Webber, 1997). For example,
poverty consistently accompanies poor health, and an unstable living environment. Low
socioeconomic status can also impact parental stress, and stress induced by economic
disadvantage can lead to harsher disciplinary practices. Mothers of low income families
will exhibit a high rate of harsh disciplinary practices to prevent their children from
involvement in antisocial activity and this can promote child aggressive behavior. An
overwhelming sense of stress due to economic hardships can lead to less attention to the
child's needs.
10
Family Dysfunction Can Lead to Delinquency
Even though divorce tends to contribute to delinquent behavior, conflict among
family members is a better predictor (Parks, 2013). Two of the main factors influencing
juvenile delinquency are the family structure that a child is exposed and the relationships
adolescents have with parents (Parks, 2013). Youth of all ages are living in many various
types of homes, such as with single, married, and cohabiting parents. Children that live
in non-traditional households are at greater risk for a wide variety of negative outcomes
including involvement in delinquency (Parks, 2013). Children in different family
structures also experience many forms of monitoring, supervision, involvement, and
attachment they receive from their parents. Children experiencing parental divorce are
already at risk for a variety of negative developmental outcomes so it would be more
beneficial to the child if the environment inside the family structure was civil.
Youth who have weak attachments to their parents such as a sense of closeness or
security, are more likely to participate in delinquent behavior. The attachment between
parent and child is paramount and the strength of this relationship is one of the most
important factor in determining delinquent behavior. It is the quality, and not the
quantity, of bonds that determine delinquency (Parks, 2013). Many children who
experience a divorce or are in otherwise non-traditional families may not be as close to
their parents as children in two-biological-parent families. They may experience
weakened bonds with their parents and others, which can increase the likelihood that they
will engage in crime and delinquency (Parks, 2013).
Adolescents who lack a feeling of closeness with their parents or who feel a lack
of family cohesion are more likely to get into trouble. Children exposed to high-conflict
11
parental relationships may acquire the negative or dysfunctional behavioral strategies
used by parents during conflict. Parents who are overwhelmed, who provide little acts of
discipline, who use coercive techniques to force submission, who have negative attitudes
toward school, and who engage in multiple negative-aggressive behaviors themselves
tend to produce children who are at risk for antisocial behavior (Webber, 1977).
Increased social bonds decrease the likelihood of engaging in crime and deviance.
Having adequate support from friends, family, and teachers can allow a child to believe
in a second chance. Social bonds with parents have also been measured with terms such
as parental monitoring, supervision, and involvement. Behavioral control, such as
parental monitoring is negatively linked to delinquency. Similarly, some studies show
that more time spent with parents lead to less participation in crime and delinquency
(Parks, 2013). The more frequently adolescents are supervised, the less likely they are to
engage in crime and delinquency. Practicing good parenting and closely supervising an
adolescent can influence the adolescent not to participate in crime throughout adulthood.
Children who are brought up in families where they are closely supervised and have
interactions with their parents are less likely to turn into criminals as adults (Parks, 2013).
A child looks for support from family, friends, and professional helpers who the
child views as caring and would hold them accountable for their actions. Parental
separation removes one parent from the home which may reduce the amount of support
the child later receives from family. Having social support is universally cited as the
most important factor leading to a child overcoming the impact of divorce (Raleigh-
DuRoff, 2004). When the child's coercive and aggressive behavior results in social
12
rejection by peers and teachers, because of peer isolation, the child has few opportunities
to develop appropriate social skills (Webber, 1997).
Parental Divorce Impacts Mental Health, Which Can Lead to Delinquency
Young children who may not display early aggressive behavior but who are
depressed, feel hopeless, or have other psychological disorders may also be at higher risk
for later delinquent behavior. In addition, one third of depressed young people display
antisocial behavior or conduct disorders (Webber, 1997). Poverty, health, and family
integrity appear to interact with children's emotional well-being. Children who live in
poverty, deprived of basic necessities, often feel hopeless and either learn to be victims or
may resort to aggression to obtain what they need (Webber, 1997) Maltreatment
victimization, school/education problems, and mental health disorders (including
substance abuse) are associated with profound difficulties for many children and
adolescents.
Academic Performance and Deviant Behavior
The addictive effects of parental conflict and divorce disrupt the intellectual
environment in the home, the supervision of homework, and communication with the
school, causing a child's academic success to decline (Mulholland, Watt, Philpott, &
Sarlin, 1991). School performance may also suffer following parental divorce because of
ineffective parenting skills. Parents may be overwhelmed with stress and finances so
they do not take the time to sit down with their child and go over their school work.
Children's performance in school, academically and behaviorally, is a main ingredient in
building self-esteem and a sense of accomplishment (Mulholland et al., 1991).
13
Young children with academic and behavior problems often display aggressive
and violent behavior and may drop out of school (Webber, 1997). Children who are
raised in at-risk family situations and who display aggressive behavior early in life have a
higher probability of attending schools in poor school districts (Webber, 1997). Also,
these schools are often overcrowded, impersonal, have high concentrations of children
with aggressive behavior, and have inexperienced teachers (Webber, 1997). Schools
might resemble the dysfunctional family. Adolescents from disadvantaged and troubled
families are more likely to have unsuccessful school experiences, form weak bonds to
normative social institutions (i.e., school and community organizations) due to poor
social skills, and curtail or abandon conventional aspirations (Wickrama, Simons, &
Baltimore, 2012). A majority of adolescents involved in juvenile court have at least one,
if not more than one, significant emotional or learning impairment, or maltreatment
experience (Mallett, 2013).
14
Conclusion
I explored existing literature on potential connections between parental divorce
and delinquency, and how it might affect child negative outcomes. First, I considered the
impact of divorce on children through various characteristics such as socioeconomic
status, family structure, social support, mental health, and academic performance.
Previous research suggests that children whose parents divorce have worse adjustment on
average than do children whose parents do not divorce. Ultimately, there are significant
changes in family composition, parent-child interaction, discipline, and socioeconomic
circumstances, as well as the emotional reactions that parents and children have to
divorce (Demo & Acock, 1988). Many studies over the years have linked juvenile
delinquency, deviancy, and antisocial behavior to children living in “broken homes”
(Demo & Acock, 1988). Juvenile delinquency is more prevalent today than in the past.
Many children who experience a divorce or who live in otherwise nontraditional families
may not be as close to their parents as children in two biological-parent families.
Children who lack a feeling of closeness with their parents or who feel that they lack
family cohesion are more likely to get into trouble. Some children may start stealing or
lying because they are not receiving the attention that they want or need. Poverty, health,
and family integrity appear to interact with children's emotional wellbeing. Children who
live in poverty, deprived of basic necessities often feel hopeless and either learn to be
victims or may resort to aggression to obtain what they need (Webber, 1997).
The ultimate goal for society should be to prevent juvenile delinquency
altogether. In order to accomplish this, society as a whole should refocus its efforts on
building healthy families and adolescents to curtail juvenile delinquency. One
15
intervention which may help this is the process of mediation, in which a neutral third
person helps two parties resolve disputes between them. The major goal of mediation in
family disputes is to help the disputing couple become rational and responsible enough to
cooperate toward making compromises acceptable to both (Coogler, Weber, & McKenry,
1979). Divorce mediation, as developed by the Family Mediation Association, provides
a new alternative for the resolution of the conflict specifically surrounding marital
dissolution (Coogler et al., 1979). There are also programs designed to specifically target
children and adolescents who have behavioral problems.
In the last three decades, there has been ample research to demonstrate that
instituting Multisystem Therapy (MST) for serious juvenile offenders, keeping them in
the community with intensive intervention, can significantly reduce recidivism. MST
provides 24-hour available parental guidance, family therapy, individual therapy, group
therapy, educational support and a change of peer group. MST focuses on prosocial
activity and less on association with deviant peers. MST is an intensive therapy program
which focuses on numerous aspects of the adolescent's life, family, school and any other
unique factors which may relate to the individual's delinquent behaviors. Insights from
participants included appreciation that the family finally had time to talk with each other.
Delinquent individuals also stated they were more clearly able to see and recognize how
their behaviors were affecting their family (May, Osmond, & Billick, 2014).
Studies such as the Perry Preschool Program suggest that early intervention
programs produce positive effects on reducing future delinquency and are highly cost
effective for society (May et al., 2014). By combining early education programs with
support programs, the Perry Preschool Program is able to target multiple risk factors,
16
including antisocial, for future delinquency. The Perry Preschool Program model has
become one of the most commonly used curriculums in the Head Start Program offered
to low-income families.
Parental divorce impacts children and adolescents in a variety of ways. Research
has proven that children and adolescents of divorce are at risk for an assortment of
adjustment problems. It is our job as a society to help children and adolescents cope with
family disruptions such as parental divorce. Implementing more programs and preventive
measures can help reduce a child or adolescent from partaking in deviant acts.
17
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